A Comparison of Piaget, Freud, and Erikson

A Comparison of Piaget, Freud, and Erikson Essay A Comparison of Piaget, Freud, and EriksonbyRandy HartenstinePsychology 1513-51Extra Credit PaperApril 8, 1999Hartenstine 1The field of psychology has grown to be respected as a science. Objectivity and the scientific method are both part of the psychologists mode of operation. However, even the greatest of psychologists can only theorize about what makes human beings act the way they do. Absolutes are not part of psychology. Everything is relative and open to speculation. Theorists give us their views or ideas about life. In the field of psychology, there have been many different areas of interest. Human development is one of the most popular areas of interest for those who study psychology. Freud, Erikson, and Piaget are all great theorists with different ideas concerning human development. Each theorist developed ideas and stages for human development. Their theories on human development had human beings passing through different stages. Each theory differed on what these stages w ere. These theories also differed with their respect towards paradigmatic assumptions, learning and development, and relationship towards educational practice. Freud is known as the father of psychology. Although some of his work has been dismissed, most of it still holds weight in the world of psychology today. Freud believed that inner forces fueled human development. He believed the most powerful of all inner forces was our sexual being. Freud linked everything with sex. This includes any bodily pleasure whatsoever. Thus, when Freud discusses the sexual needs of children, they are not the Hartenstine 2same kind of sexual needs that an adult would experience. Children experienced sexual gratification in different ways. Sucking their thumbs or retaining their excrement could be seen as sexual gratification for small children. Freud also specified certain areas of our body as erogenous zones. Those areas included the mouth and genitals. This all fit in to Freuds obsession with sex. An obsession that could be linked to the era that Freud lived in. It was a very conservative period in history. Sexual feelings were often repressed. Freuds theo ry on human development could be labeled the psychosexual stages of development. Freud believed human beings passed through different stages in their life based on which part of their body gratified them. Freuds psychosexual stages of development are five in total. The Oral stage takes place from birth to about one year. During this stage, a child is orally oriented. The mouth is the childs erogenous zone. Everything a child touches is put in his mouth. Freud believes children do this because it gives them pleasure. When a child sucks his thumb, it does so because it gratifies them. According to Freud, the gratification is sexual. The second stage in Freuds psychosexual development theory takes place between the ages of two and three years of age. The erogenous zone shifts location, thus moving from one stage to another. The second erogenous zone in Freuds stages of human development is the anal region. Freud believes childrenHartenstine 3experience sexual gratification during bowel movements and when they withhold bowel movements. Some children may even experience pleasure handling, looking at, or thinking about their own feces. Once the Anal stage of development has been completed, the next stage of development for Freud is the Phallic Stage. This usually occurs at about three years of age. The shift in erogenous zones moves from the anal region to the genital organs. This stage is also known as the Oedipal Stage of psychosexual development. This name comes from the legendary king, Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother. During this stage, children take interest in their sexual organs. Soon they notice differences and similarities between themselves and their parents. Each sex wants to be with the parent of the other sex, for girls this is referred to as theelektra complex. Once the children realize they can not be with their mother or father, they identify with the parent of the same sex. The next stage is called the stage of Latency. A lack of change or absence of erogenous zones characterizes this stage. After the realization that the child can not be with a parent sexually, the child shifts its attention to same-sexed relationships. Boys will shift their sexual urges and drives to something acceptable, such as sports. This is a time of relative calm. The last stage of Freuds psychosexual development is the Genital Stage. The erogenous zone returns in a very powerfulHartenstine 4way in the genital organs. This stage takes place from puberty into adulthood. True sexual desire and sexual relationships mark this stage. Erikson took Freuds ideas and enhanced them. He added stages for the adult years. He also shifted his attention to identity rather than sexuality. Erikson developed the psychosocial stages of development. He is known for his eight stages of life. Eriksons first stage is during infancy. It deals with trust versus mistrust. The child develops an outlook on life and whether the world can be trusted or not. Th e child develops trust if the parents give the child something it can rely on. According to Erikson, the child develops a sense of optimism or pessimism during this stage. The next stage in Eriksons psychosocial development is during early childhood and is known as autonomy versus shame and doubt. The child becomes autonomous and realizes he can say yes or no. This stage will determine whether a child develops a sense of self-certainty. Eriksons next stage takes place during the ages of three to six years. This stage is marked by initiative versus guilt. This stage is important in developing the childs sense of enterprise. The child develops initiative when trying out new things and is not scared of failing. The fourth stage of Eriksons developmental theory takes place at about six years of age and lasts till puberty. This stage deals with industry Hartenstine 5 versus inferiority. The child learns skills of the culture and must deal with feelings of inferiority. Adolescence brings about the next stage for Erikson. This stage is known for identity versus identity confusion. During this stage, Erikson believes adolescents must develop a sense of self-awareness or knowing who they are. They develop a sense of identity. The sixth stage for Erikson is known for intimacy versus isolation. READ: WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN AND HIS MARCH TO THE SEA William Tecumseh She EssayThis stage takes place during young adulthood. The person seeks commitments from others. If he is unsuccessful, he may take on isolation. Erikson believes this stage is important in learning love. The seventh stage for Erikson takes place during adulthood. It is marked by generativity versus stagnation. During this stage, the adult is concerned with guiding the next generation. This stage according to Erikson gives the adult a sense of caring. Eriksons last and eighth stage takes place at a mature age. Old age is marked by integrity versus despair. During this time, the people may achieve a sense of acceptance of their own life, which in turn allows for the acceptance of death. When one passes through this last stage, Erikson believes that a person has achieved wisdom. Piaget also believed in developmental theory. Her stages were cognitive stages. These stages were based on what the child can do. Acc ording to Piaget, a child passes through four stages in its life. Piaget was interested in the childs Hartenstine 6abilities and senses, not sexual desires like Freud was. Piaget believes the first stage of development should be a cognitive one. Her first stage is known as the sensorimotor stage. It takes place from birth to about two years of age. During this time, a child learns motor meaning, object permanence, and the th beginning of symbolic representation, also known as language.The child will change from someone who responds only through reflexes to one who can organize his activities in relation to his environment. It does this through sensory and motor activity. The next stage in Piagets cognitive development theory is the pre-operational stage. This takes place from about two to seven years of age. During this stage, the childs language develops. They develop a representational system and use symbols such as words to represent people, places, and events. From about seven t o thirteen years of age, Piaget believes children enter the concrete operational stage. They can solve problems logically. They can understand rules and form concepts. Some children become moralistic. The last stage Piaget believes is the formal operational stage. This stage takes place from about twelve years of age through adulthood. Once someone has reached this stage, one should be able to think abstractly, manipulate abstract concepts, use hypothetical reasoning, and use creative language. These three theories on human development each have their Hartenstine 7own good and bad points. One problem all theories must deal with is paradigmatic assumptions. These are ideas that the theorist has taken for granted as facts. An example is Freuds notion that women suffer from a lack of self-esteem or self worth all their lives because of penis envy. Freuds assumption could have derived merely because of the time when he lived, and it was a time when women were treated as second class citizens. Freuds assumption that sex is the driving force behind everything could also be a product of his times. Sexual feelings were often repressed. The problem with paradigmatic assumptions is that each person grows up in a different culture and some theories dont apply to everyone. The problem with psychology remains that it is not an exact science. It is difficult to develop good paradigmatic assumptions because of that. Erikson assumes a child must learn these virtues or skills in this order. But, what if a child does not? Someone may never have a meaningful relationship, but they may develop wisdom. This would undercut Eriksons assumptions that everyone must pass through these stages in this order. Piaget also has some assumptions in her theory. A person that never learns to add may be able to think hypothetically. These mistakes only show that psychology still has its flaws. Each of these theories has some value because they are Hartenstine 8not totally wrong. These theories have withstood criticism and are some of the best. Each theory is similar by time and their sequence of life events; where they differ is in their focus. Freud focuses on sex, Erikson focuses on the self and social orientation, and Piaget focuses on the childs abilities and senses. Each theory is also useful when applied to its relationship to educational practices, and these different ideals guide teachers in the mystical theories of forever trying to understand human development, the mind, and its behaviors. READ: Human Resource Management Of Standard Chartered Bank EssayHartenstine 9Work CitedCoon, Dennis. Introduction to Psychology: Exploration andApplication, 7th Edition. Minnesota: West PublishingCompany, 1995. Freud, Sigmund. The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud. Brill, A. A.: Dodd, Mead and Company, Inc., July 1979. Piaget, Jean, et al. The Psychology of The Child. Berkeley andLos Angeles: University of California Press, Ltd., 1972.

Organization of the Future Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organization of the Future - Essay Example the liberty to do what they want with the business and this means whether the business will make profits or not the owner has full control over all the possible outcomes (Goldsmith, 2009). A sole proprietor cannot be fired by anybody because he owns the business thus he can do his job at his own speed. In this form of business, owner can decide to give any name that he or she wants to and this also means that the owner can call his business by his name or just come up with a fictitious name without being asked for any explanation. This is the most famous legal forms of commerce due to the fact that it has the ease of setup, nominal cost and its wide simplicity (Mole, 2003). When it comes to legalizing a sole proprietorship business, one only needs to register his or her name and get legal licenses of the business and there it is ready to start operating. One of the only disadvantages of the sole proprietorship is that the business owner remains responsible for any losses that the business undertakes and this means that if the business goes through a financial crisis then creditors are allowed to come and bring lawsuits against the business owner. When such suits take place successfully then a sole proprietor is forced to pay the debts with his or her own pocket money and this is where the pain of the money lost is greatly felt (Witte, 2000). Another benefit of a sole proprietorship business is that while business checks are written by creditors, they are printed with the name of the business owner or with the fictitious names that the business bares and this means that a sole owner can bring lawsuits against another company that bears its business name. Many businesses in the modern world begin as a sole proprietorship then along the way depending on its rate of growth it graduates to more complex forms and this also benefits the owner in a huge way (Ostroff, 1999). Competitors of Cosmos Cuisine are big restaurants and hotels in town such as Jazz restaurant

Account for plagiarism in universities in English speaking countries Essay

Account for plagiarism in universities in English speaking countries - Essay Example Plagiarism is referred to as copying other people’s ideas or words without giving proper reference or credit. It is just a part of overall cheating problem.Subjective evidence and few researches reveal that cheating among students is much more widespread than it is usually acknowledged. In 2009-10, as much as 17,000 students in more than 80 universities were recorded by universities as involved in plagiarizing. Nowadays, Plagiarism has become a growing concern for universities. A large number of universities spend thousands of dollars in purchasing expensive plagiarism detector software so as to determine the percentage of plagiarism in an assignment. In order to overcome cost, many universities do not check plagiarism of every assignment since there are thousands of students with dozens of courses each year. Therefore, they prefer in checking plagiarism of the most important assignments, dissertations and research papers only. The availability of all type of information over internet has made plagiarism easier than ever before. Copying and pasting entire essays or few paragraphs from internet can be done in just few mouse clicks. Plagiarism is more common among university students since they face unanticipated pressures of deadlines. There are certain reasons which account for plagiarism in university students in English speaking countries. Some of them are briefly mentioned below. Ignorance Countries other than United States may have taught different conventions and rules to their students, which differentiate from that of American Academy. Others merely might not know how to paraphrase appropriately or they might believe that as long as they are providing references and inserting in-text citations, then it is acceptable to use the same language as mentioned in the source from where they are copying. One of the methods to fight ignorance is to teach students in class regarding the convention of academic citations. It can be done by discussing about pla giarism in class, guiding students to the websites of writing centers and handing them out different material related to plagiarism. Writing difficulty Due to lack of interest in studies, many students do not participate in class work and home work. By doing so, they soon lose confidence in their writing skills and abilities. They feel that they are deprived of creative and good ideas as well as academic writing skills. Such students usually confront writer’s block when they are facing the blank page. Since they lack confidence in their own writing abilities, they feel they would not be getting good marks. Therefore, they tend to copy their assignment from other credible sources. Anxiety Anxiety can result from many causes. Some of them include tensions at jobs, anxiety about writing, being overloaded with too many assignments, certain issues at home, not completely understanding the assignment questions etc. Such anxiety arise sense of laziness and carelessness among student s. Since they cannot escape the given assignments, therefore they tend to find relevant answers on internet and copy and paste those answers into their assignments as their own words. Careless note-taking Many students do not pay attention in class and avoid note-taking of class lectures. Making notes of regular lectures can minimize the trouble of writing assignment, since they would have necessary points written in their notebooks with the help of which, they can prepare their assignments. Many students do not write notes while being in the class and therefore, when an assignment is given to them, they plagiarize. Lack of perceived consequences If a large number of students are cheating, then it also affects other students who are preparing their assignments by themselves. Such students feel discouraged since they are putting too much effort into their homework while others aren’t. Even worse, the students who plagiarize get good marks than those who are working hard on the ir assignments without